Pakistan
| I | INTRODUCTION |
Pakistan, officially Islamic Republic of Pakistan,
republic in South Asia, marking the area where South Asia converges with
Southwest Asia and Central Asia. The capital of Pakistan is Islāmābād; Karāchi
is the country’s largest city.
The area of present-day Pakistan was the cradle
of the earliest known civilization of South Asia, the Indus Valley civilization
(2500?-1700 bc). The territory was
part of the Mughal Empire from 1526 until the 1700s, when it came under British
rule. Pakistan gained independence in August 1947. It initially comprised two
parts, West Pakistan and East Pakistan, which were separated by about 1,600 km
(1,000 mi) of territory within India. In December 1971 East Pakistan seceded and
became the independent republic of Bangladesh.
| II | LAND AND RESOURCES OF PAKISTAN |
Pakistan is bordered on the west by Iran, on
the north and northwest by Afghanistan, on the northeast by China, on the east
and southeast by India, and on the south by the Arabian Sea. A panhandle of
Afghanistan territory in the northwest, the Wakhan Corridor, separates Pakistan
and Tajikistan. The area of Pakistan is 796,095 sq km (307,374 sq mi), not
including the section of Jammu and Kashmīr under its control. Jammu and Kashmīr
is a disputed territory located between Pakistan and India. Pakistan controls a
portion of the territory as Azad (Free) Kashmīr and the Federally Administered
Northern Areas (FANA), while India controls a portion as the state of Jammu and
Kashmīr.
| A | Natural Regions |
Pakistan has great extremes of elevation,
reaching the highest point at the Himalayan peak of K2 (also known as Mount
Godwin Austen) in the north and the lowest point at the Arabian Sea coast in the
south. The Indus River flows the length of Pakistan from north to south. The
Indus and its tributaries form a wide river valley with fertile plains in Punjab
and Sind (Sindh) provinces. Pakistan is mountainous in the north and west.
Earthquakes are frequent, and occasionally severe, in the northern and western
areas.
Much of Pakistan is a dry, sun-scorched
region. To the west of the Indus are the rugged dry mountains of the Sulaimān
Range, which merge with the treeless Kīrthar Range in the south. Farther west
are the arid regions of the Baluchistan Plateau and the Khārān Basin. A series
of mostly barren low mountains and hills predominate in the western border
areas. The Thar Desert straddles the border with India in the southeast.
The country also possesses a variety of
wetlands, with the glacial lakes of the Himalayas, the mudflats of the Indus
Valley plains, and the extensive coastal mangroves of the Indus River delta. The
wetland areas cover an estimated area of 7.8 million hectares (19.3 million
acres).
| B | Rivers |
The Indus River is the lifeline of Pakistan.
Without the Indus and its tributaries, the land would have turned into a barren
desert long ago. The Indus originates in Tibet from the glacial streams of the
Himalayas and enters Pakistan in the northeast. It runs generally southwestward
the entire length of Pakistan, about 2,900 km (1,800 mi), and empties into the
Arabian Sea. The Indus and its tributaries provide water to two-thirds of
Pakistan. The principal tributaries of the Indus are the Sutlej, Beās, Chenāb,
Rāvi, and Jhelum rivers. In southwestern Punjab Province these rivers merge to
form the Panjnad (“Five Rivers”), which then merges with the Indus to form a
mighty river. As the Indus approaches the Arabian Sea, it spreads out to form a
delta. Much of the delta is marshy and swampy. It includes 225,000 hectares
(556,000 acres) of mangrove forests and swamps. To the west of the delta is the
seaport of Karāchi; to the east the delta fans into the salt marshes known as
the Rann of Kutch.
| C | Coastline |
The coastline of Pakistan extends 1,046 km
(650 mi) along the Arabian Sea. The Makran Coast Range forms a narrow strip of
mountains along about 75 percent of the total coast length, or about 800 km (500
mi). These steep mountains rise to an elevation of up to 1,500 m (5,000 ft).
Most of the coast is underdeveloped, with deserted beaches and only a few
fishing villages.
| D | Mountain Peaks and Passes |
Pakistan has within its borders some of the
world’s highest and most spectacular mountains. In the northern part of the
country, the Hindu Kush mountains converge with the Karakoram Range, a part of
the Himalayan mountain system. Thirteen of the world’s 30 tallest peaks are in
Pakistan. The tallest include K2, the second highest peak in the world at 8,611
m (28,251 ft), in the Karakoram Range; Nanga Parbat (8,125 m/26,657 ft) in the
Himalayas; and Tirich Mīr (7,690 m/25,230 ft) in the Hindu Kush.
Many mountain passes cross Pakistan’s
borders with Afghanistan and China. Passes crossing over the mountains bordering
Afghanistan include the Khyber, Bolān, Khojak, Kurram, Tochi, and Gomal passes.
The most well-known and well-traveled is the Khyber Pass in the northwest. It
links Peshāwar in Pakistan with Jalālābād in Afghanistan, where it connects to a
route leading to the Afghan capital of Kābul. It is the widest and lowest of all
the mountain passes, reaching a maximum elevation of 1,072 m (3,517 ft). The
route of the Bolān Pass links Quetta in Baluchistan Province with Kandahār in
Afghanistan; it also serves as a vital link within Pakistan between Sind and
Baluchistan provinces. Historically, the Khyber and Bolān passes were used as
the primary routes for invaders to enter India from Central Asia, including the
armies of Alexander the Great. Also historically significant is Karakoram Pass,
on the border with China. For centuries it was part of the trading routes known
as the Silk Road, which linked China and other parts of Asia with Europe.
| E | Plants and Animals |
The vegetation of Pakistan varies with
elevation, soil type, and precipitation. Forests are largely confined to the
mountain ranges in the north, where coniferous alpine and subalpine trees such
as spruce, pine, and deodar cedar grow. The southern ranges of the Himalayas,
which are of lower elevation, receive heavy rainfall and have dense forests of
deodar, pine, poplar, and willow trees. The more arid Sulaimān and Salt mountain
ranges are sparsely forested with a type of mulberry called shisham, a
broad-leaved, deciduous tree. Dry-temperate vegetation, such as coarse grasses,
scrub plants, and dwarf palm, predominates in the valleys of the North-West
Frontier Province and the Baluchistan Plateau. The arid western hills are dotted
with juniper, tamarisk (salt cedar), and pistachio trees. The area of Ziārat,
Baluchistan, has juniper forests that are believed to be 5,000 years old;
however, they are dwindling due to deforestation. Dry-tropical scrub and thorn
trees are the predominant vegetation in the Indus River plain. Known as
rakh, this vegetation is native to the region and can survive
temperatures higher than 45°C (113°F). Riverine forests, found in the Indus
floodplain, require six weeks of monsoon flooding to sustain them during the dry
months. Irrigated tree plantations are found in Punjab and Sind. Mangrove
forests in the coastal wetlands are an integral part of the marine food
chain.
Animal life in Pakistan includes deer,
boar, bear, crocodile, and waterfowl. The wetlands provide an essential habitat
for a number of important mammal species, including coated otter, Indian river
dolphin, fishing cat, hog deer, and wild boar. During the migration season, at
least 1 million waterfowl representing more than 100 species visit the extensive
deltas and wetlands of Pakistan. Pakistan’s rivers and coastal waters contain
many types of freshwater and saltwater fish, including herring, mackerel,
sharks, and shellfish.
Threatened or endangered species include
the snow leopard, Marco Polo sheep (a subspecies of the argali), bharal (blue
sheep), and ibex (a type of wild goat). These animals can still be found in
remote and protected areas of the Himalayas. The houbara bustard has been
overhunted as a game bird in Pakistan and is officially protected.
| F | Climate |
The climate of Pakistan varies widely, with
sharp differences between the high mountains and low plains. The country
experiences four seasons. In the mountainous regions of the north and west,
temperatures fall below freezing during winter and are mild during summer. In
the Indus plains, temperatures range between about 32° and 49°C (about 90° and
120°F) in summer, and the average in winter is about 13°C (about 55°F).
Mountainous areas receive most
precipitation as heavy snowfall in winter. In other areas of Pakistan, most
precipitation comes with the summer monsoons during July and August. The summer
monsoons are seasonal winds that bring torrential rainfall, breaking the hot,
dry spell and providing much-needed relief. The rainfall is so heavy that it
causes rivers in Punjab and Sind provinces to flood the lowland areas. Rainfall
is scarce the rest of the year. Punjab Province has the most precipitation in
the country, receiving more than 500 mm (20 in) per year. In contrast, the arid
regions of the southeast (the Thar Desert in Sind) and southwest (Baluchistan)
receive less than 125 mm (5 in) annually.
| G | Natural Resources |
More than 20 different types of minerals
have been identified in Pakistan, but few are of sufficient quality or quantity
to be commercially exploited. Most mineral deposits are found in the mountainous
regions. Pakistan’s exploited natural resources include coal, natural gas,
petroleum, gypsum, limestone, chromite, iron ore, rock salt, and silica sand.
Pakistan has extensive natural gas reserves, notably in the vicinity of Sui,
Baluchistan, from where it is piped to most of the large cities of Pakistan.
Petroleum is limited, but exploration for additional reserves holds promise.
Most of the country’s coal is of poor quality. The Salt Range in Punjab Province
has large deposits of pure salt. Only about 2.4 percent of Pakistan’s total land
area is forested, and timber is in short supply.
| H | Environmental Issues |
The wetlands in Pakistan are a precious
resource. In an arid to semiarid environment, these ecosystems have tremendous
value. People, domestic livestock, and wildlife depend on them for livelihood
and survival. The wetlands are also a major source of food staples, livestock
grazing and fodder, fuel wood, and irrigation water. However, the fragile
wetland ecologies are threatened by poor conservation, over-exploitation, and
urban and industrial pollution.
Pakistan’s forests also are in urgent need
of protection and conservation. The country has one of the highest rates of
deforestation in the world. The primary causes of deforestation are population
growth and settlement, lack of fuelwood alternatives, insect damage and
diseases, forest fires, and lack of awareness about the importance of
preservation.
In the 1970s the government of Pakistan
began making efforts to protect the country’s forests by creating national
parks. The protected forests of the parks help prevent soil erosion. The parks
also serve as wildlife sanctuaries and game reserves, as well as tourist
attractions. One of the country’s most important alpine biodiversity regions is
contained within Khunjerab National Park, established in 1975. The park is an
important habitat sanctuary for a number of threatened or endangered species,
including the snow leopard. Located in the Himalayas, it is one of the
highest-altitude parks in the world at 5,000 m (16,000 ft).
Pakistan participates in the World
Heritage Convention and the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, and it has one
designated biosphere preserve under the United Nations Educational, Scientific,
and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Man and the Biosphere Program.
| III | THE PEOPLE OF PAKISTAN |
The people of Pakistan are ethnically
diverse. They trace their ethnic lineages to many different origins, largely
because the country lies in an area that was invaded repeatedly during its long
history. Migrations of Muslims from India since 1947 and refugees from
Afghanistan since the 1980s have significantly changed the demographics of
certain areas of the country. The people of Pakistan come from ethnic stocks
such as Dravidian, Indo-Aryan, Greek, Scythian, Hun, Arab, Mongol, Persian, and
Afghan. Although an overwhelming majority of the people are Muslim, religion
does not supersede ethnic affiliations. The people follow many different
cultural traditions and speak many different languages and dialects.
Pakistan has a population of 167,762,040
(2008 estimate), yielding an average population density of 215 persons per sq km
(558 per sq mi). The country’s population was increasing in 2008 at a rate of
1.8 percent a year. Only 35 percent of the people live in urban areas.
| A | Cultural Groups |
Pakistan is a multilingual and
multiethnic nation. Most of the people belong to one of the country’s five major
ethnolinguistic groups: Punjabis, Sindhis, Pashtuns (Pakhtuns), Mohajirs
(Muslims who migrated to the newly formed nation of Pakistan after 1947), and
Baluch (Baloch). Ethnically distinct subgroups exist within each of these five
categories. Overall, ethnic identity is multilayered and complex and may be
based on a combination of religion, language, ethnicity, and tribe.
Not all of the ethnolinguistic groups are
equally represented in the power structure of Pakistan. Mohajirs, Punjabis, and
Pashtuns are the dominant groups, while Sindhis and Baluch struggle to advance
and protect their interests.
Punjabis constitute nearly 60 percent of
the population of Pakistan. They have diverse origins, but over the centuries
they coalesced into a coherent ethnic group in the historic Punjab region and
developed a common language, Punjabi. Today most Punjabis prefer to read and
write in Pakistan’s official language, Urdu, and their language-based ethnic
identity is relatively weak. Many Punjabis are farmers in the fertile valley of
Punjab Province. Punjabis also predominate in the military and the federal
government.
Sindhis make up about 13 percent of the
population. They are a predominantly rural people. Their traditional homeland is
the province of Sind, where they maintain the country’s largest concentration of
large landholdings. Sindhis have a strong sense of linguistic and cultural pride
and identity. They have a rich literary and folk tradition and prefer to read
and write in their own language, Sindhi.
Pashtuns also make up about 13 percent of
the population. They are primarily farmers, livestock herders, traders, and
soldiers in the Pakistan military. Pashtuns are divided into many tribes, and
their tribal structure is egalitarian. Pashtuns follow a strict code of conduct
known as Pashtunwali (“Pashtun Way”). Pashtun identity, including their
interpretation of Islamic law, is formulated and guided by Pashtunwali. The code
is based on the absolute obligations of providing hospitality and sanctuary,
even to one’s enemies, and exacting revenge at all costs in the defense of one’s
honor. The code also requires Pashtuns to abide by the decisions of the
jirga (council of tribal leaders) in matters of dispute. Many Pashtuns
have blue eyes and claim to be descendants of the European soldiers who fought
for Alexander the Great in the region 2,000 years ago. They have a rich oral
tradition in their ethnic language, Pashto, but many Pashtuns prefer to read and
write in Urdu.
Baluch constitute 4 percent of the
country’s population. Most Baluch reside in their traditional homeland, the
Baluchistan Plateau. They are a predominantly nomadic people, migrating wherever
the arid land provides enough vegetation to raise their animals. Raising
livestock, mainly sheep and goats, and selling their hides and wool constitute
the way of life for many Baluch. They also have apple, almond, and apricot
orchards, and some grow wheat. Baluch tribal organization is strictly
hierarchical, and each tribe is headed by a sardar (tribal chief). Most
Baluch speak Baluchi (Balochi), a language that is similar to Persian. About
one-fifth of Baluch also speak Brahui, a Dravidian-derived language. Baluch are
the least educated and poorest segment of the population and are inadequately
represented in government.
Mohajirs constitute about 8 percent of
the population. They are Muslims who settled in Pakistan after the partition of
British India in 1947. Unlike other cultural groups of Pakistan, they do not
have a tribe-based cultural identity. They are the only people in the country
for whom Urdu, the official language, is their native tongue. Mohajirs were the
vanguard of the Pakistan Movement, which advocated the partition of British
India in order to create the independent nation of Pakistan for Indian Muslims.
After the partition, a large number of Muslims migrated from various urban
centers of India to live in the new nation of Pakistan. These migrants later
identified themselves as mohajirs, meaning “refugees” in both Urdu and
Arabic. A large number of Mohajirs settled in the cities of Sind Province,
particularly Karāchi and Hyderābād. They were better educated than most
indigenous Pakistanis and assumed positions of leadership in business, finance,
and administration. Today they remain mostly urban.
Sindhis felt dispossessed by the
preponderance of Mohajirs in the urban centers of Sind. With the emergence of a
Sindhi middle class in the 1970s and adoption of Sindhi as a provincial language
in 1972, tensions between Mohajirs and Sindhis began to mount. The 1973
constitution of Pakistan divided Sind into rural and urban districts, with the
implication that the more numerous Sindhis would be better represented in
government. Many Mohajirs felt that they were being denied opportunities and
launched a movement to represent their interests. The movement, which evolved
into the Mohajir Qaumi Movement (MQM) in the mid-1980s, called for official
recognition of Mohajirs as a separate cultural group and advocated improved
rights for Mohajirs. Although factional rivalries and violence within the MQM
tarnished its image and shrunk its power base, the movement continues to be a
potent force in urban centers of the province, particularly Karāchi. The MQM has
contributed to a more defined Mohajir identity within the country.
| B | Political Regions |
The ethnic groups of Pakistan are
distributed according to their historical settlement in the region. The current
political regions of Pakistan roughly correspond to the settlement patterns
established long before the partition of British India in 1947, when Pakistan
was created as a homeland for Indian Muslims. The four provinces are Punjab, the
Muslim portion of the historic Punjab region; Sind, the traditional homeland of
the Sindhis; the North-West Frontier Province, a small portion of the Pashtun
tribal lands; and Baluchistan, a portion of the Baluch tribal lands. The
traditional homelands of the Pashtuns and Baluch extend beyond the modern
political borders, both provincial and national.
Punjab is the most populated province of
Pakistan, with 72.6 million people (1998). Most of the people are Punjabis. The
province contains most of the country’s largest cities, but the rural
agricultural areas are also densely settled. The province is the second largest
in area.
Sind is the second most populated
province in Pakistan, with about 30 million people (1998). Its population is the
most urbanized in Pakistan. Sindhis make up about 60 percent of the population
of Sind, living mostly in rural areas. Mohajirs constitute the remaining 40
percent and live mostly in the province’s large cities. Sind is the third
largest province in area.
The North-West Frontier Province (NWFP)
has a population of 17.6 million (1998). The majority of the people are
Pashtuns. The province is part of the historic Pashtun tribal lands, which
extend throughout southern and southeastern Afghanistan and well into western
Pakistan, including the Federally Administered Tribal Areas and northern
Baluchistan. The NWFP is Pakistan’s smallest province in area. In the 1980s
refugees from war-torn Afghanistan began to settle in the province. Refugee
camps and rudimentary villages were set up in the border areas. A large number
of refugees also established communities in cities such as Peshāwar. Many became
semipermanent residents of Pakistan because Afghanistan remained in a state of
war through the mid-1990s. The majority of refugees were Pashtuns, facilitating
their assimilation into the province’s population, in many cases through
intermarriage.
Baluchistan is the most sparsely
populated and least developed province of Pakistan. A majority of the 6.5
million (1998) people who live in Baluchistan are Baluch. Pashtuns are the
second largest ethnic group in the province. In recent years a large number of
Afghan refugees have settled in Baluchistan. In area, Baluchistan is the largest
province of Pakistan, covering nearly 40 percent of the country’s total
territory. However, the province is an arid and inhospitable hinterland.
| C | Principal Cities |
Pakistan’s largest city is Karāchi, the
capital of Sind Province. It is the country’s only seaport and a major
financial, industrial, and commercial center. It is also known as the ethnic
melting pot of Pakistan. Lahore, the capital of Punjab Province, is Pakistan’s
second largest city and a cultural and educational center. Faisalābād, in
central Punjab, is the center of textile and fertilizer industries. Multān, the
largest city in southern Punjab, has many ancient Muslim shrines, a huge
fertilizer factory, and small cottage industries such as carpet weaving and
pottery. Hyderābād, in Sind Province, is a manufacturing center with textile and
glass factories, as well as a cultural center with museums, historic mosques,
and a medical school. Peshāwar, the capital of the North-West Frontier Province,
is a busy, overcrowded frontier outpost and a hub of trade with Afghanistan. For
centuries it served as a gateway and trading post between Afghanistan and
Southeast Asia.
Islāmābād is the capital of Pakistan and
the seat of the federal government; it forms its own administrative unit, the
Islāmābād Capital Territory. Just to the south, in bordering Punjab Province, is
Rāwalpindi, the headquarters of the Pakistani army and an industrial
center.
| D | Religion |
Islam is the faith of about 97 percent
of the people of Pakistan. About three-quarters of the country’s Muslims are
Sunni, and about one-quarter are Shia. Some small Muslim fringe sects, such as
the Ahmedis and Zikris, also exist. Hindus and Christians form the largest
religious minorities. Other religious groups include Sikhs, Parsis, and a small
number of Buddhists. The constitution defines Pakistan as an Islamic state but
guarantees freedom of religion.
| E | Languages |
Urdu is the official language of
Pakistan. It is the first language of only a small percentage of the population,
but it cuts across linguistic and provincial boundaries as the national
language. More than 75 percent of Pakistanis can speak and understand Urdu. In
urban areas about 95 percent of the people communicate in Urdu. Urdu replaced
English as the official language in 1978.
Most Pakistanis speak at least two
languages. A large segment of the population is trilingual, speaking English,
Urdu, and an ethnic-based regional language. Punjabi, Pashto, Sindhi, Baluchi,
and Brahui are the major regional languages. These languages have many regional
dialects, including Saraiki, a widely spoken dialect of Punjabi. Regional
languages are recognized as a potent force because language and ethnic identity
are closely interrelated; even the national census categorizes groups according
to their language, rather than their ethnicity. However, there is growing
awareness among Pakistanis that for social mobility, national cohesion, and
individual success, it is imperative to be fluent in Urdu and proficient in
English.
Several factors contributed to the
establishment of Urdu as the lingua franca of Pakistan. It was the language of
the educated Muslims in northern India, who spearheaded the Pakistan Movement.
Urdu helped foster a linguistic identity among Muslims in the region. Although
similar to Hindi as a spoken language, Urdu uses a Persian-derived script and
incorporates many Arabic words. Choosing Urdu as the national language provided
a linguistic basis for the formation of a Muslim national identity. It also
provided the country with a “neutral” language because Urdu does not have ethnic
or tribal associations. Since the founding of Pakistan in 1947, state-controlled
electronic and print media have promoted Urdu. In the public schools of the
country, Urdu is the principal language of instruction.
For all practical purposes, however,
English is the de facto official language. Pakistan’s legal system is based on
British common law, and judicial and government documents are mostly written in
English. Pakistanis of all social strata strive to learn English, which has a
certain elite status. Although the quality of instruction in English has
declined, English continues to be the language of the educated and those who
want to move ahead in life.
| F | Education |
Pakistan has one of the lowest literacy
rates in the world. In 2005 only 47.4 percent of adult Pakistanis were literate.
Male literacy was 61.4 percent, while female literacy was 32.4 percent. From
1976 to 2001 the number of primary schools doubled, but so did the population.
High levels of population growth continue to hamper educational development in
the country. The government launched a nationwide initiative in 1998 with the
aim of eradicating illiteracy and providing a basic education to all
children.
According to the constitution, it is the
state’s responsibility to provide free primary education. Five years has been
established as the period of primary school attendance, but attendance is not
compulsory. While the enrollment rate in primary school is high for boys, less
than half of all girls attend school. In the 2002–2003 school year 68 percent of
primary school-aged children were enrolled in school, while only 23 percent of
secondary school-aged children attended. In 2002–2003, 3 percent of Pakistan’s
college-aged population attended institutions of higher education. The
wealthiest and best students seek education in British and American
universities.
At the time of independence Pakistan had
only one university, the University of the Punjab, founded in 1882 in Lahore.
Pakistan now has more than 20 public universities. Among Pakistan’s leading
public institutions of higher education are Quaid-e-Azam University (1965), in
Islāmābād, the University of Karāchi (1951), the University of Peshāwar (1950),
and the University of Sindh (1947), near Hyderābād.
Since 1978 the government has encouraged
the privatization of education at all levels. This led to the creation of three
major private universities: Lahore University of Management Sciences (LUMS),
Agha Khan University Medical College (in Karāchi), and Ghulam Ishaq Khan
Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology (in Topi, North-West Frontier
Province). The National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), in
Rāwalpindi, conducts research in the fields of science and technology for both
the public and private sectors.
| IV | CULTURE OF PAKISTAN |
Pakistan has a rich and diverse cultural
heritage. Pakistanis celebrate their culture through folk music, dance, and
festivals. They have a strong appreciation for poetic expression and
storytelling. The history of the country comes to life in the splendid
architectural detail of centuries-old mosques and forts. After it became part of
the expansive Mughal Empire in 1526, the region that is now Pakistan entered a
golden age of literature, architecture, and music.
| A | Literature |
Pakistanis adore poetry and commonly
memorize long poems. A mushaira (poetry reading) in Pakistan can attract
hundreds of listeners. Among classical poets in the Urdu language, Mirza Ghalib
is perhaps the most widely admired. Ghalib, who wrote in the 19th century, is
known for his lyrical and spiritual ghazals. Ghazals are the most popular
form of poetry in the Urdu and Persian languages.
The official national poet of Pakistan is
Allama (“the Wise”) Muhammad Iqbal. He earned the title of poet-philosopher of
Pakistan not only because he was an exceptionally talented poet, but also
because he was active in the politics of his time. In 1930 he called for the
creation of a separate Muslim state in northwestern British India. He wrote
poetry in Urdu and Persian and gave university lectures in English.
Faiz Ahmed Faiz is perhaps the most adored
modern poet in Pakistan. Faiz began writing poetry in the 1950s after a
distinguished journalism career. His ghazals are primarily concerned with class
struggle, rather than the conventional themes of love and beauty. A progressive
writer, Faiz was also a political dissident, and military governments banned his
poetry from television and radio. Ahmad Faraz, Muneer Niazi, and Parveen Shakir
are some of the other popular Urdu-language poets of Pakistan.
Shah Abdul Latif Bhitai, a Sufi mystic who
in the first half of the 18th century wrote about love and Sindhi life, is the
most revered poet of the Sindhi language. His poetry is widely recited by
illiterate and educated Sindhis alike. Khushal Khan Khattak is the most famous
poet of the Pashto language. In the 17th century he wrote poetry describing the
beauty of women and nature, using military metaphors. The most well-known poet
of the Punjabi language is Bulleh Shah, of the 17th century, whose poetry
challenged the religious orthodoxy. In recent years short stories and
travelogues have gained literary prominence, in addition to poetry.
| B | Music and Film |
The classical music tradition in Pakistan
traces its roots to the 13th-century poet and musician Amir Khosrow, who
composed the earliest ragas, the traditional rhythmic form. To play the
ragas, Muslim musicians invented the sitar, a long guitar-like stringed
instrument, and the tabla, a small pair of hand drums.
Qawwali, a form of devotional song,
arose as part of the Sufi (Islamic religious sect) tradition. This rich vocal
tradition is based on melodic and free-rhythmic song-poems and classical musical
forms. It is traditionally performed at the shrines of Sufi saints, but today
qawwali singers also perform for major secular events. Qawwali singer Nusrat
Fateh Ali Khan won international popularity in the late 20th century by infusing
qawwali performances with new form and style. Other traditional musical
forms—including the Punjabi bhangra, the Sindhi juhumar, and the
Pashtun khattack—have also acquired new forms and continue to be popular
for dancing. Punjabi, Pashto, and Sindhi folk songs are popular in rural
Pakistan. Modern Pakistani musical groups and singers have introduced new forms
of pop music based on traditional melodies.
Most Pakistanis prefer and enjoy songs
from Pakistani and Indian movies. These songs are commonly played on radio and
television. A synthesis of musical scores from movies, traditional folk music,
and popular Western music is gaining popularity.
The film industry of Pakistan, known as
Lollywood, is concentrated in Lahore. Most Pakistani movies are long,
melodramatic love stories with plenty of songs. The film industry is often
regulated and censored by the government. Films must follow the conventions of
Islamic law, and the showing of physical contact such as kissing is prohibited.
In the mid-1970s the industry produced about 150 movies a year, but since then
the number has declined. In the 1980s the market for Pakistani films shrunk as a
result of restrictions imposed by the military regime of Muhammad Zia ul-Haq and
the availability of smuggled videotapes of Indian and Western movies.
Television became a major cultural
influence in Pakistan in the 1980s, when the state-controlled network, Pakistan
Television, attained national reach. It aired both Pakistani and American shows.
In recent years satellite and cable television services have significantly
increased access to international networks offering many different cultural and
political perspectives.
| C | Architecture |
Pakistan has inherited a combination of
Mughal and British colonial architectural forms. Mughal architects combined the
Muslim preferences for large domes, slender towers, and archways with the Hindu
use of red sandstone, white marble, and inlaid jewels. Mughal artists decorated
the monuments with verses from the Quran, the sacred text of Islam. The best
example of this architecture is the Badshahi Mosque and Lahore Fort, built
between the 1580s and 1670s in Lahore by Mughal emperor Aurangzeb. Other
examples of Mughal architecture include Shalimar Gardens (laid out in 1641), in
Lahore; the Shah Jahan Mosque (17th century), in Thatta, Sind Province; and the
mid-18th-century tomb of the great Sindhi poet Shah Abdul Latif Bhitai, in Bhit
Shāh, near Hyderābād.
Pakistan’s most notable example of modern
architecture is the Faisal Mosque in Islāmābād. One of the largest mosques in
the world, it was completed in 1986 as a gift from Saudi Arabia. Turkish
architect Vedat Dalokay designed the mosque to resemble an Arab desert tent,
with an eight-sided prayer hall supported by four towering minarets. The
interior contains the mosaics and calligraphy of the celebrated 20th-century
Pakistani artist Sadequain.
| D | Libraries and Museums |
Karāchi is the seat of some of the most
important libraries in Pakistan; these include the Liaquat Memorial Library
(1950), the Central Secretariat Library (1950), and the University of Karāchi
library. Also of note are the National Archives of Pakistan, in Islāmābād, and
the Punjab Public Library (1884), in Lahore.
The National Museum of Pakistan (1950), in
Karāchi, is noted for its archaeological material from the Mohenjo-Daro and
Harappa sites in the Indus Valley. Important materials from this ancient
civilization are also found at the Institute of Sindhology, in Jām Shoro, and
the Hyderābād Museum. The Lahore Museum (1864), the country’s largest museum,
and the Peshāwar Museum (1906) also have exhibits on the rich cultural history
of the region. The Industrial and Commercial Museum, in Lahore, contains
exhibits on the manufactures of Pakistan. The National Museum of Science and
Technology is a participatory science center in Lahore.
| V | ECONOMY OF PAKISTAN |
Like most developing countries, Pakistan has
been confronted with the problems of rapid population growth, chronic budget
deficits, and heavy dependence on foreign aid and loans. Over the years Pakistan
has accumulated a sizable foreign debt. The economy is also strained by the
maintenance of a large military establishment. Debt repayment, defense spending,
and general administrative expenditures tend to consume a large portion of
Pakistan’s annual budget. The social sector is underdeveloped.
In 2006 Pakistan’s gross domestic product
(GDP) was $126.8 billion. The government budget in 2006 included $16.9 billion
in revenues and $19.3 billion in expenditures.
| A | Economic Development |
After East Pakistan seceded to become the
independent nation of Bangladesh in December 1971, the elected government of
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto tried to pick up the pieces of a truncated Pakistan. It
devised economic policies that led to a drastic devaluation of the Pakistani
currency, thereby boosting agricultural exports. To ease unemployment pressure
the government encouraged the export of Pakistani labor to the Middle East. It
also embarked on the nationalization of industries, banks, and agriculture-based
industries. This expansion of the public sector ultimately shook private-sector
confidence so that investment plummeted. The annual growth rate declined,
averaging between 2.7 percent and 3.7 percent during most of the 1970s.
During the 1980s the country’s economy grew
an average rate of 6 percent annually. This high growth rate was largely created
by three factors: aid from the United States, the influx of foreign exchange
from Pakistanis working abroad, and high crop yields. First, Pakistan received
an average of $600 million per year in economic and military aid from the United
States from 1981 to 1989, largely because of Pakistan’s support for anti-Soviet
forces in the Soviet-Afghan War. (During this decade Pakistan was the
third-largest recipient of U.S. aid, after Israel and Egypt.) Second, Pakistan
received $2.5 billion in remittances from Pakistanis working abroad in the
Persian Gulf States and other countries. Third, good weather conditions produced
bumper cotton and wheat crops.
At the same time, the government did little
to devise policies to boost the confidence of private investors or promote the
welfare of Pakistani citizens. The negative fallout of the Afghan war on
Pakistan was an expansion of the black market (the illicit sale of commodities)
and the proliferation of portable weapons and violence. Despite the high
economic growth rate, the economy remained largely agricultural, and
socioeconomic disparities between the rich and poor widened. Also during the
1980s, the military regime increased defense spending to such an extent that the
fiscal deficit rose to 10 percent of the GDP. In addition, public debt ballooned
from less than 40 percent of the GDP to more than 80 percent.
The economy of Pakistan slowed to an
average annual growth of 3.8 percent during the 1990s. Factors contributing to
the sluggish growth included corruption and mismanagement at the highest levels
of government and the rise of ethnic and sectarian violence in Karāchi and other
urban centers. These factors shook investor confidence.
The economic performance of the 1990s was
also related to the structural adjustment programs (SAPs) of the World Bank and
the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Loans from these international lending
agencies were subject to conditions on Pakistan’s national economic policies.
Pakistan received its first formal loan in 1988. In Pakistan the primary focus
of the IMF-sponsored program was to lower the budget and current-account
deficits. These objectives were to be achieved by reducing public expenditures
and broadening the tax base. In addition, in 1992-1993 the IMF further insisted
that Pakistan reduce defense expenditures, impose an agricultural tax, and
improve methods of tax collection. These reforms were never fully implemented,
however, and the IMF-sponsored program did not achieve the desired result.
Inflation rose from 8 percent in the 1980s to 11 percent in the 1990s, although
a nominal reduction in the budget deficit was visible. Direct foreign investment
did not improve and the export sector remained sluggish.
A high-powered Privatization Commission was
created in 1990 to encourage privatization of public-sector industries, economic
deregulation, and other reforms designed to boost confidence in the principles
of a free-market economy. However, the commission was slow to implement its
privatization program.
After Pakistan exploded a nuclear device
in May 1998, it faced the imposition of international sanctions. In September
2001 the United States lifted most of the economic sanctions it had imposed,
brightening prospects for Pakistan’s economy.
| B | Agriculture |
About 28 percent of Pakistan’s total land
area is cultivated. Agriculture and related activities, including fishing,
engage 42 percent of the workforce and provide 19 percent of the GDP. Principal
crops include sugar cane, wheat, rice, cotton, and corn. Livestock include
cattle, water buffalo, sheep, goats, and poultry.
Land reform is a controversial issue in
Pakistan. At independence in 1947, a large proportion of the arable land was
concentrated in a small number of large estates, many of them owned by absentee
landlords and cultivated by tenant farmers. Land reforms introduced in 1959
provided some security of tenure to tenants but did little to break up the large
estates. In the 1970s the government of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto introduced more
extensive land reforms. The amount of land any individual could own was
significantly reduced, and landlords were not compensated for the land they
surrendered. Most of the expropriated land was distributed to tenants, but the
government retained land that was not suitable for farming. Landlords strongly
resisted the reforms, however, and the government bureaucracy was somewhat lax
in enforcing them. In the end, the reforms shook the landlords but did not break
their hold. By the end of the 20th century, about half of the country’s arable
land was held by only a small percentage of wealthy landowners.
The Bhutto government also developed
favorable credit and loan policies for farmers. The tractor became the new
status symbol in rural Pakistan. Improved mechanization gave a boost to
agricultural productivity. Formerly an importer of wheat, Pakistan achieved
self-sufficiency in the grain by the late 1970s.
| C | Fishing |
Fishing resources, although underdeveloped,
are extensive. In 2005 the catch was 515,472 metric tons, three-quarters of it
obtained from the Indian Ocean. Types of fish caught include sardines, sharks,
and anchovies.
| D | Manufacturing |
In 2006 manufacturing accounted for 20
percent of the GDP. About 21 percent of the labor force is engaged in industry,
including manufacturing and mining. Important products include processed foods,
cotton textiles, silk and rayon cloth, refined petroleum, cement, fertilizers,
sugar, cigarettes, and chemicals. Many handicrafts, such as pottery and carpets,
also are produced.
| E | Energy |
Pakistan’s total output of electricity in
2003 was 77 billion kilowatt-hours. Hydroelectric dams on the Indus and its
tributaries help furnish the country’s energy needs, but the supply of
hydroelectricity drops sharply during the dry winter months. About 34 percent of
the country’s electricity is produced through dams. The country also exploits
its reserves of natural gas, crude petroleum, and coal. About 64 percent of the
country’s electricity is generated in thermal installations fueled by natural
gas and petroleum.
Pakistan has two nuclear power plants, but
neither produces a significant amount of electricity. The Karāchi plant was
built with Canadian help in the early 1960s, and the Chashma plant, on the Indus
River in southern Punjab, was built in the 1980s with financial support from
China.
Pakistan is not self-sufficient in energy
production. The country relies on imported petroleum to fuel its
electricity-generating thermal plants. However, the country’s exports bring in
hardly enough revenues to meet the cost of petroleum imports. During the 1990s
rising oil prices had a devastating effect on the economy, leading to a rise in
the country’s foreign debt.
| F | Currency and Banking |
The basic monetary unit is the Pakistani
rupee, consisting of 100 paisa (60.30 rupees equal US$1; 2006
average). The State Bank of Pakistan, established in 1948, issues banknotes;
manages currency and credit, the public debt, and exchange controls; and
supervises the commercial banks. Pakistani banks were nationalized in 1974, but
in the early 1990s the country transferred two banks to private ownership and
issued licenses for ten new commercial banks. A number of major foreign banks
maintain offices in the country. In conformity with Islamic doctrine, domestic
banks in Pakistan have redefined the payment and collection of interest as
profit. Investment partnerships between the bank and the customer have replaced
loans at interest.
| G | Foreign Trade |
The foreign trade of Pakistan consists
largely of the export of raw materials and basic products such as cotton yarn
and the import of manufactured products. The United States is the largest
trading partner of Pakistan. In 2003 exports earned $12.7 billion and imports
cost $15.5 billion. The chief exports were cotton textiles, cotton yarn and
thread, clothing, raw cotton, rice, carpets and rugs, leather, fish, and
petroleum products; the main imports were machinery, electrical equipment,
petroleum products, transportation equipment, metal and metal products,
fertilizer, and foodstuffs.
| H | Transportation |
The lack of modern transportation
facilities is a major hindrance to the development of Pakistan. Its terrain,
laced with rivers and mountains, presents formidable obstacles to internal
overland transportation. The country has 258,340 km (160,525 mi) of roads. The
railroad network totals 7,791 km (4,841 mi).
Karāchi is the principal port of Pakistan.
The coastline is underdeveloped because of the rugged topography, but it has
promise for development. In recent years successive governments of Pakistan have
made efforts to build infrastructure along the Makran Coast. Toward this end,
the government of Pakistan signed an agreement with China in the late 1990s to
develop an international shipping port at Gwādar as an alternative to Karāchi.
Gwādar is located on a peninsula that is accessible to large ships traveling
from the Gulf of Oman, which leads to the Persian Gulf.
The Karakoram Highway was constructed
between China and Pakistan in 1978 and opened to regular traffic in 1982. This
all-weather road is 1,300 km (800 mi) long and passes through the Himalayas,
reaching an elevation of 5,000 m (16,000 ft) at Khunjerab Pass. It is of
strategic significance for Pakistan and China, connecting Islāmābād with
Kashgar, in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of China.
Pakistan International Airlines (PIA), the
national airline, is in large part government owned. PIA offers flights within
Pakistan and to a number of other countries. In the early 1990s the government
ended the PIA’s monopoly on domestic service, allowing private carriers to offer
domestic flights. Privately owned international airlines also operate in
Pakistan. The country’s main international airports serve Karāchi, Lahore,
Islāmābād, and Rāwalpindi.
| I | Communications |
In 2005 Pakistan had 34 telephone mainlines
for every 1,000 people. The number of cellular-phone subscribers is growing
rapidly. Radio receivers number 94 and television sets 131 per 1,000
residents.
Television broadcasting began in Lahore in
1964 and in Karāchi in 1966. Since then television-broadcasting centers have
been set up in Peshāwar, Rāwalpindi, Islāmābād, and Quetta, giving the Pakistani
television network an almost total nationwide reach. In the early 1990s
satellite dishes made it possible for international television programming to
reach even the remotest areas of the country. More recently, the availability of
cable television has improved accessibility to the international networks.
Newspapers are mainly printed in Urdu and English. Pakistan has 291 daily
newspapers, most with small circulations. The major dailies are concentrated in
Lahore, Karāchi, and Islāmābād.
| VI | GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN |
Since independence in 1947 Pakistan has had
three constitutions, adopted in 1956, 1962, and 1973, consecutively. The 1973
constitution was the result of consensus among the political parties that were
represented in the parliament. After a military coup d’état in 1977, martial law
was imposed and the constitution was suspended. In 1985 a civilian government
was reestablished, and the 1973 constitution was restored, although in a
radically amended form. The Eighth Amendment confirmed and legalized all acts
and orders that had been issued under the martial law regime, including
amendments to the constitution. The amended constitution significantly expanded
the powers of the president. It also included clauses that promoted Islam as the
supreme law of Pakistan. In 1997, however, the constitution was amended to
repeal the main provisions of the Eighth Amendment, stripping the president of
the power to dismiss the prime minister and dissolve the parliament. After
another military coup in 1999, the constitution was suspended and the
democratically elected parliament was dissolved. In August 2002 a presidential
decree amended the constitution to grant sweeping powers to the president,
restoring the president’s power to dismiss the prime minister and dissolve the
parliament. Parliamentary elections were held in October to restore civilian
rule in the country. The 1973 constitution was formally revived in November
2002.
| A | Executive |
Pakistan’s head of state is a president.
Under the constitution, the president is elected to a five-year term by members
of the national and provincial legislatures. A prime minister is the chief
executive official. After legislative elections, the president appoints the
leader of the majority party or majority coalition in the legislature to serve
as prime minister. As amended in August 2002, the constitution allows the
president to dissolve the national legislature, appoint military chiefs and
Supreme Court justices, and chair the National Security Council, a
quasi-military advisory body.
| B | Legislature |
Under the constitution, legislative power
is vested in the bicameral Federal Legislature. The National Assembly (lower
house) has 342 seats; 60 of these seats are reserved for women and 10 are
reserved for non-Muslims on a basis of proportional representation. Members of
the National Assembly are directly elected for four-year terms. The Senate
(upper house) has 100 seats; senators are elected indirectly by the provincial
and national legislatures for five-year terms.
| C | Judiciary |
The highest court in Pakistan is the
Supreme Court. The judicial system in each province is headed by a high court.
There is also a federal Sharia Court, which hears cases that primarily involve
Sharia, or Islamic law. Legislation enacted in 1991 gave legal status to Sharia.
Although Sharia was declared the law of the land, it did not replace the
existing legal code.
| D | Local Government |
According to the constitution, Pakistan is
a federation. The country is divided into four autonomous (self-governing)
provinces; two federally administered areas; and the Islāmābād Capital
Territory, which consists of the capital city of Islāmābād.
The four provinces are Baluchistan, the
North-West Frontier Province (NWFP), Punjab, and Sind. The provinces are headed
by governors appointed by the president. Under the constitution, each province
has a directly elected provincial assembly headed by a chief minister. However,
the provincial assemblies were suspended following the 1999 military coup.
The Islāmābād Capital Territory, the
Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA), and the Federally Administered
Northern Areas (FANA) are under the jurisdiction of the federal government. In
the FATA, however, tribal leaders manage most internal affairs. Azad (Free)
Kashmīr has a separate and autonomous government but maintains strong ties to
Pakistan. Control of the territory included within FANA and Azad Kashmīr is a
matter of dispute between Pakistan and India (see Jammu and
Kashmīr).
| E | Political Parties |
Pakistan’s founding nationalist party, the
Muslim League, dissolved after martial law was imposed in 1958. The Pakistan
Muslim League (PML) founded in 1962 bore little resemblance to the original
party. The PML subsequently splintered into several factions. In 1967 Zulfikar
Ali Bhutto formed the Pakistan People’s Party (PPP) to oppose the regime of
Muhammad Ayub Khan. In the aftermath of the military coup of 1977, political
parties were banned from 1979 until civilian rule was restored in 1985. Although
political parties were not banned after the military coup of 1999, they could
not participate in government because the national and provincial assemblies
were dissolved. In 2002 these legislative bodies were restored following
multiparty elections.
| F | Health and Welfare |
Health services in Pakistan are limited
by a lack of facilities. In 2004 the country had one physician for every 1,353
people and one hospital bed for every 1,429 people. In 1976 an old-age pension
system was inaugurated, but it covers relatively few Pakistanis.
| G | Defense |
Military service in Pakistan is voluntary.
In 2004 the country’s armed forces had 619,000 members, including 550,000 in the
army, 45,000 in the air force, and 24,000 in the navy. Another 247,000 were in
paramilitary units.
| VII | HISTORY OF PAKISTAN |
The area of present-day Pakistan has a long
history of human settlement as the cradle of the Indus Valley civilization, the
earliest-known civilization in South Asia. This Bronze Age culture flourished in
the area of the Indus River Valley from about 2500 to 1700 bc. The Indus River is considered the
lifeblood of Pakistan, and the ancient culture that arose there serves as an
icon of Pakistan’s territorial identity. Important archaeological sites in
Pakistan include Mohenjo-Daro (Sindhi for “Mound of the Dead”), in Sind
Province, and Harappā, near the Ravi River (a tributary of the Indus) in Punjab
Province.
Pakistan’s cultural identity is traced to
the centuries of Muslim rule in the region. In ad 711 Mohammad bin Qasim, an Arab
general and nephew of Hajjaj, ruler of Iraq and Persia, conquered Sind and
incorporated it into the Umayyad Caliphate. Thereafter Muslims continued to rule
areas of present-day Pakistan for almost 1,000 years. For the first 300 years
the region of Sind was the only part of the Indian subcontinent that was under
Muslim rule. Muslim rule began to spread to other areas after the Afghan sultan
Mahmud of Ghaznī, leader of the Ghaznavids, invaded in 997. After he conquered
the region of Punjab in the early 11th century, he made Lahore his capital.
Between 1175 and 1186 the regions of Sind and Punjab were conquered by Muhammad
of Ghur, leader of the Turkish Ghurid Empire, which was centered in what is now
west central Afghanistan. His generals conquered all of north India by the time
he was assassinated in 1206. That year his general Qutubuddin Aybak laid the
foundations of an independent Muslim kingdom in India, the Delhi Sultanate.
Thirty-five sultans ruled this rich and powerful sultanate from 1206 to 1526.
The sultanate included most of Punjab and Sind during this period.
The golden age of Muslim rule in the Indian
subcontinent came with the glory and grandeur of the Mughal Empire (1526-1858).
Between 1526 and 1707 six powerful Mughal kings ruled in succession: Babur,
Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb. As the boundaries of the
empire grew, Islam spread in India through incoming Muslim rulers,
intermarriages, conversions among the lower Hindu castes, and the teachings of
Sufi mystics. The death of Aurangzeb in 1707 marked the beginning of the decline
of the Mughal Empire, and of Muslim rule in India.
| A | British Rule |
The waning control of the Mughal Empire
left the subcontinent vulnerable to new contenders for power from Europe. The
British changed the course of history by penetrating India from the Bay of
Bengal, in the east; until then invading forces had entered India from the
northwest, mostly by way of the Khyber Pass. The English East India Company
established trading posts in Bengal and represented British interests in the
region. In 1757 company forces defeated the nawab (ruler) of Bengal,
Siraj-ud-Dawlah, in the Battle of Plassey.
This victory marked the beginning of
British dominance in the subcontinent. The company continued to expand the area
under its control through military victories and direct annexations, as well as
political agreements with local rulers. The British annexed the area of
present-day Sind Province in 1843. The region of Punjab, then under the control
of the Sikh kingdom of Lahore, was annexed in 1849 after British forces won the
second of two wars against the Sikhs. Some areas of Baluchistan were declared
British territory in 1887.
As the British sought to expand their
empire into the northwest frontier, they clashed with the Pashtun tribes that
held lands extending from the western boundary of the Punjab plains into the
kingdom of Afghanistan. The Pashtuns strongly resisted British invasions into
their territories. After suffering many casualties, the British finally admitted
they could not conquer the Pashtuns. In 1893 Sir Mortimer Durand, the foreign
secretary of the colonial government of India, negotiated an agreement with the
king of Afghanistan, Amir Abdur Rahman Khan, to delineate a border. The
so-called Durand Line cut through Pashtun territories, dividing them between
British and Afghan areas of influence. However, the Pashtuns refused to be
subjugated under British colonial rule. The British compromised by creating a
new province in 1901, named the North-West Frontier Province, as a loosely
administered territory where the Pashtuns would not be subject to colonial laws.
The British maintained their empire in
the Indian subcontinent for nearly 200 years. The first 100 years were marked by
chaos and crisis. The Sepoy Rebellion, also known as the Indian War of
Independence, erupted in 1857 and became a widespread revolt against British
rule. After the British quelled the rebellion in 1858, they immediately took
steps to maintain control. The British government officially abolished the
Mughal Empire and exiled Muhammad Bahadur Shah to Burma. In addition, the
British government transferred authority from the English East India Company to
the British crown, establishing direct imperial rule in India. To help
consolidate control the British initiated a series of educational,
administrative, and political processes between 1858 and 1900. English was
introduced as the official language.
The Muslim response to the imposition of
British rule evolved around the ideas and leadership of Sir Syed Ahmad Khan. In
1875 Sir Syed founded Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College (now Aligarh University)
because he believed that Muslims could best improve their social and economic
standing by gaining a Western education, rather than the traditional Islamic
education. He encouraged Muslims to pursue higher education based on the Western
model as a way to advance themselves, and their community, in the new order. He
also encouraged Muslims to seek government jobs and show loyalty to the British
Raj. At the same time he sought British patronage for improving the lives of the
Muslims of India. He demanded a separate Muslim electorate, arguing that Muslims
were at a disadvantage among India’s overwhelming majority of Hindus. Hindus
also were advancing themselves in the new order more quickly than Muslims, the
majority of whom held low socioeconomic status as farmers and laborers. The
emerging educated Muslim groups found Sir Syed’s ideas inspiring.
In the 1880s the British initiated
political reforms that allowed the formation of political parties and local
government. The Indian National Congress was created in 1885 to advocate for
Indian autonomy from British rule. Many Muslims believed the organization
focused on Hindu interests, however, and in 1906 Muslims formed the Muslim
League to represent their interests. Muslims demanded, and were granted,
separate electorates in the Government of India Act of 1909. This guaranteed
Muslims representation in the national and provincial legislative councils,
although the authority of these legislative councils was severely limited under
the British colonial government. Both Muslims and Hindus demanded autonomy
(self-government), and in 1919 constitutional reforms were introduced that gave
the legislative councils greater authority. However, the reforms fell short of
granting autonomy and did not satisfy political demands. The Amritsar Massacre
of 1919 further galvanized nationalist, anti-British sentiment.
The concept of an autonomous Muslim
state was publicly proposed during the Allahābād session of the Muslim League in
1930 by the leading Muslim poet-philosopher in South Asia, Mohammad Iqbal. He
envisioned a system in which areas that had Muslim majorities would constitute
an autonomous state within India. During the next decade, this concept evolved
into the demand for the partition of India into separate Muslim and Hindu
nations, known as the Two Nations Theory. In 1940 Muslim League president
Mohammed Ali Jinnah presided over the organization’s annual session, held that
year at Lahore, in which the League made its first official demand for the
partition of India. The Lahore Resolution called for an independent, sovereign
Muslim state.
During preindependence talks in 1946,
the British government found that the stand of the Muslim League on separation
and that of the Congress on the territorial unity of India were irreconcilable.
The British then decided on partition and on August 14, 1947, granted
independence to Pakistan. India gained its independence the next day. They both
became independent dominions within the Commonwealth of Nations. Pakistan came
into existence in two parts: West Pakistan, coextensive with the country’s
present boundaries, and East Pakistan, now known as Bangladesh. The two were
separated by 1,600 km (1,000 mi) of Indian territory.
| B | Problems of Partition |
The division of India caused tremendous
dislocation of populations. Some 3.5 million Hindus and Sikhs moved from
Pakistan into India, and about 5 million Muslim refugees (known as Mohajirs)
migrated from India to Pakistan. The demographic shift caused an initial
bitterness between the two countries that was further intensified by each
country’s accession of a portion of the princely states in the region. Nearly
all of these 562 widely scattered polities joined either India or Pakistan;
however, the Muslim princes of Hyderābād and Jūnāgadh and the Hindu ruler of
Kashmīr chose not to join either country.
On August 14 and 15, 1947, these three
princely states had become technically independent. But when the Muslim ruler of
Jūnāgadh, with its predominantly Hindu population, joined Pakistan a month
later, India annexed his territory. In September 1948 India used force of arms
to annex Hyderābād (now part of Andhra Pradesh state, in central India), which
had a mostly Hindu population. The Hindu ruler of Kashmīr, whose subjects were
85 percent Muslim, decided to join India. Pakistan, however, questioned his
right to do so, and a war broke out between India and Pakistan. Although the
United Nations (UN) subsequently resolved that a plebiscite be held under UN
auspices to determine the future of Kashmīr, India continued to occupy about
two-thirds of the state and refused to hold a plebiscite. Pakistan controlled
the remaining portion as Azad (Free) Kashmīr, an autonomous region, and the
Northern Areas, federally administered. This deadlock, which still persists, has
intensified suspicion and antagonism between the two countries. See also
Indo-Pakistani Wars.
| C | Early Governments and the Constitution of 1956 |
The first government of Pakistan was
headed by Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan and it chose the seaport of Karāchi as
its capital. Jinnah, considered the founder of Pakistan and hailed as the
Quaid-i-Azam (Great Leader), became head of state as governor-general. The
government faced many challenges in setting up new economic, judicial, and
political structures. It endeavored to organize the bureaucracy and the armed
forces, resettle the Mohajirs (Muslim refugees from India), and establish the
distribution and balance of power in the provincial and central governments.
Undermining these efforts were provincial politicians who often defied the
authority of the central government, and frequent communal riots. Before the
government could surmount these difficulties, Jinnah died in September
1948.
In foreign policy, Liaquat established
friendly relations with the United States when he visited President Harry S.
Truman in 1950. Pakistan’s early foreign policy was one of nonalignment, with no
formal commitment to either the United States or the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics (USSR), the two major adversaries in the Cold War. In 1953, however,
Pakistan aligned itself with the United States and accepted military and
economic assistance.
Liaquat was assassinated in 1951. Khwaja
Nazimuddin, an East Pakistani who had succeeded Jinnah as governor-general,
became prime minister. Ghulam Muhammad became governor-general. Nazimuddin
attempted to limit the powers of the governor-general through amendments to the
Government of India Act of 1935, under which Pakistan was governed pending the
adoption of a constitution. Ghulam Muhammad dismissed Nazimuddin and replaced
him with Muhammad Ali Bogra, Pakistan’s ambassador to the United States, who
subsequently was elected president of the Muslim League.
In the 1954 provincial elections in East
Pakistan, the Muslim League was routed by the United Front coalition, which
supported provincial autonomy. The coalition was dominated by the Awami League.
However, Ghulam Muhammad imposed governor’s rule in the province, preventing the
United Front from taking power in the provincial legislature. After the
constituent assembly attempted to curb the governor-general’s power, Ghulam
Muhammad declared a state of emergency and dissolved the assembly. A new
constituent assembly was indirectly elected in mid-1955 by the various
provincial legislatures. The Muslim League, although still the largest party,
was no longer dominant as more parties, including those of the United Front
coalition, gained representation. Bogra, who had little support in the new
assembly, was replaced by Chaudhri Muhammad Ali, a former civil servant in West
Pakistan and a member of the Muslim League. At the same time, General Iskander
Mirza became governor-general.
The new constituent assembly enacted a
bill, which became effective in October 1955, integrating the four West
Pakistani provinces into one political and administrative unit, known as the One
Unit. This change was designed to give West Pakistan parity with the more
populous East Pakistan in the national legislature. The assembly also produced
Pakistan’s first constitution, which was adopted on March 2, 1956. It provided
for a unicameral (single-chamber) National Assembly with 300 seats, evenly
divided between East and West Pakistan. It also officially designated Pakistan
an Islamic republic. According to its provisions, Mirza’s title changed from
governor-general to president.
| D | Unstable Parliamentary Democracy |
The new charter notwithstanding,
political instability continued because no stable majority party emerged in the
National Assembly. Prime Minister Ali remained in office only until September
1956, when he was unable to retain his majority in the National Assembly and was
succeeded by Hussain Shaheed Suhrawardy, founder of the Awami League of East
Pakistan. He formed a coalition cabinet that included the Awami League and the
Republican Party of the West Wing, a new party that was formed by dissident
members of the Muslim League. However, President Mirza forced Suhrawardy to
resign after he discovered that the prime minister was planning to support Firoz
Khan Noon, leader of the Republican Party, for the presidency in the country’s
first general elections, scheduled for January 1959. The succeeding coalition
government, headed by Ismail Ibrahim Chundrigar of the Muslim League, lasted
only two months before it was replaced by a Republican Party cabinet under
Noon.
President Mirza, realizing he had no
chance of being reelected president and openly dissatisfied with parliamentary
democracy, proclaimed martial law on October 7, 1958. He dismissed Noon’s
government, dissolved the National Assembly, and canceled the scheduled general
elections. Mirza was supported by General Muhammad Ayub Khan, commander in chief
of the army, who was named chief martial-law administrator. Twenty days later
Ayub forced the president to resign and assumed the presidency himself.
| E | The Ayub Years |
President Ayub ruled Pakistan almost
absolutely for a little more than ten years. Although his regime made some
notable achievements, it did not eliminate the basic problems of Pakistani
society. Ayub’s regime increased developmental funds to East Pakistan more than
threefold. This had a noticeable effect on the economy of the province, but the
disparity between the two wings of Pakistan was not eliminated. His regime also
initiated land reforms designed to reduce the political power of the landed
aristocracy. Ayub also promulgated a progressive Islamic law, the Muslim Family
Laws Ordinance of 1961, imposing restrictions on polygamy and divorce and
reinforcing the inheritance rights of women and minors.
In 1959, soon after taking office, Ayub
ordered the planning and construction of a new national capital, to replace
Karāchi. The chosen location of the new capital in the province of Punjab was
close to the military headquarters of Rāwalpindi, which served as an interim
capital. Islāmābād officially became the new capital in 1967, although
construction continued into the 1970s.
Perhaps the most pervasive of Ayub’s
changes was his introduction of a new political system, known as the Basic
Democracies, in 1959. It created a four-tiered system of mostly indirect
representation in government, from the local to the national level, allowing
communication between local communities and the highly centralized national
government. Each tier was assigned certain responsibilities in local
administration of agricultural and community development, such as maintenance of
elementary schools, public roads, and bridges. All the councils at the tehsil
(subdistrict), zilla (district), and division levels were indirectly
elected. The lowest tier, on the village level, consisted of union councils.
Members of the union councils were known as Basic Democrats and were the only
members of any tier who were directly elected.
A new constitution promulgated by Ayub
in 1962 ended the period of martial law. The new, 156-member National Assembly
was elected that year by an electoral college of 120,000 Basic Democrats from
the union councils. After the legislative elections political parties were again
legalized. Ayub created the Pakistan Muslim League (PML) as the official
government party. The presidential election of January 1965, also determined by
electoral college rather than direct vote, resulted in a victory for Ayub,
although opposition parties were allowed to participate.
Ayub was skillful in maintaining cordial
relations with the United States, stimulating substantial economic and military
aid to Pakistan. This relationship deteriorated in 1965, when another war with
India broke out over Kashmīr. The United States then suspended military and
economic aid to both countries. The USSR intervened to mediate the conflict,
inviting Ayub and Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri of India to meet in
Toshkent (Tashkent). By the terms of the so-called Toshkent Agreement of January
1966, the two countries withdrew their forces to prewar positions and restored
diplomatic, economic, and trade relations. Exchange programs were initiated, and
the flow of capital goods to Pakistan increased greatly.
The Toshkent Agreement and the Kashmīr
war, however, generated frustration among the people and resentment against
President Ayub. Foreign Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, who opposed Pakistan’s
capitulation, resigned his position and founded the Pakistan People’s Party
(PPP) in opposition to the Ayub regime. Ayub tried unsuccessfully to make
amends, and amid mounting public protests he declared martial law and resigned
in March 1969. Instead of transferring power to the speaker of the National
Assembly, as the constitution dictated, he handed it over to the commander in
chief of the army, General Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan, who was the designated
martial-law administrator. Yahya then assumed the presidency.
| F | Yahya Regime |
In an attempt to make his martial-law
regime more acceptable, Yahya dismissed almost 300 senior civil servants and
identified 32 families that were said to control about half of Pakistan’s gross
national product. To curb their power Yahya issued an ordinance against
monopolies and restrictive trade practices in 1970. He also committed to the
return of constitutional government and announced the country would hold its
first general election on the basis of universal adult franchise in late
1970.
Yahya determined that representation in
the National Assembly would be based on population. In July 1970 he abolished
the One Unit, thereby restoring the original four provinces in West Pakistan. As
a result, East Pakistan emerged as the largest province of the country, while in
West Pakistan the province of Punjab emerged as the dominant province. East
Pakistan was allocated 162 seats in the 300-seat National Assembly, and the
provinces of West Pakistan were allocated a total of 138.
| G | Civil War |
The election campaign intensified
divisions between East and West Pakistan. A challenge to Pakistan’s unity
emerged in East Pakistan when Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (“Mujib”), leader of the
Awami League, insisted on a federation under which East Pakistan would be
virtually independent. He envisaged a federal government that would deal with
defense and foreign affairs only; even the currencies would be different,
although freely convertible.
Mujib’s program had great appeal for
many East Pakistanis, and in the December 1970 election called by Yahya, he won
by a landslide in East Pakistan, capturing 160 seats in the National Assembly.
Bhutto’s Pakistan People’s Party (PPP) emerged as the largest party in West
Pakistan, capturing 81 seats (predominantly in Punjab and Sind). This gave the
Awami League an absolute majority in the National Assembly, a turn of events
that was considered unacceptable by political interests in West Pakistan because
of the divided political climate of the country. The Awami League adopted an
uncompromising stance, however, and negotiations between the various sides
became deadlocked.
Suspecting Mujib of secessionist
politics, Yahya in March 1971 postponed indefinitely the convening of the
National Assembly. Mujib in return accused Yahya of collusion with Bhutto and
established a virtually independent government in East Pakistan. Yahya opened
negotiations with Mujib in Dhaka in mid-March, but the effort soon failed.
Meanwhile Pakistan’s army went into action against Mujib’s civilian followers,
who demanded that East Pakistan become independent as the nation of
Bangladesh.
There were many casualties during the
ensuing military operations in East Pakistan, as the Pakistani army attacked the
poorly armed population. India claimed that nearly 10 million Bengali refugees
crossed its borders, and stories of West Pakistani atrocities abounded. The
Awami League leaders took refuge in Calcutta (now Kolkata) and established a
government in exile. India finally intervened on December 3, 1971, and the
Pakistani army surrendered 13 days later. East Pakistan declared its
independence as Bangladesh.
Yahya resigned, and on December 20
Bhutto was inaugurated as president and chief martial law administrator of a
truncated Pakistan. Mujib became the first prime minister of Bangladesh in
January 1972. When the Commonwealth of Nations admitted Bangladesh later that
year, Pakistan withdrew its membership, not to return until 1989. However, the
Bhutto government gave diplomatic recognition to Bangladesh in 1974.
| H | The Bhutto Government |
Under Bhutto’s leadership Pakistan began
to rearrange its national life. Bhutto nationalized the basic industries,
insurance companies, domestically owned banks, and schools and colleges. He also
instituted land reforms that benefited tenants and middle-class farmers. He
removed the armed forces from the process of decision making, but to placate the
generals he allocated about 6 percent of the gross national product to defense.
In July 1972 Bhutto negotiated the Simla Agreement, which confirmed a line of
control dividing Kashmīr and prompted the withdrawal of Indian troops from
Pakistani territory.
In April 1972 Bhutto lifted martial law
and convened the National Assembly, which consisted of members elected from West
Pakistan in 1970. After much political debate, the legislature drafted the
country’s third constitution, which was promulgated on August 14, 1973. It
changed the National Assembly into a two-chamber legislature, with a Senate as
the upper house and a National Assembly as the lower house. It designated the
prime minister as the most powerful government official, but it also set up a
formal parliamentary system in which the executive was responsible to the
legislature. Bhutto became prime minister, and Fazal Elahi Chaudry replaced him
as president.
Although discontented, the military
grudgingly accepted the supremacy of the civilian leadership. Bhutto embarked on
ambitious nationalization programs and land reforms, which he called “Islamic
socialism.” His reforms achieved some success but earned him the enmity of the
entrepreneurial and capitalist class. In addition, religious leaders considered
them to be un-Islamic. Unable to deal constructively with the opposition, he
became heavy-handed in his rule. In the general elections of 1977, nine
opposition parties united in the Pakistan National Alliance (PNA) to run against
Bhutto’s PPP. Losing in three of the four provinces, the PNA alleged that Bhutto
had rigged the vote. The PNA boycotted the provincial elections a few days later
and organized demonstrations throughout the country that lasted for six
weeks.
| I | Zia Regime |
The PPP and PNA leadership proved
incapable of resolving the deadlock, and the army chief of staff, General
Muhammad Zia ul-Haq, staged a coup on July 5, 1977, and imposed another
martial-law regime. Bhutto was tried for authorizing the murder of a political
opponent and found guilty; he was hanged on April 4, 1979. The PPP was
reorganized under the leadership of his daughter, Benazir Bhutto.
Zia formally assumed the presidency in
1978 and embarked on an Islamization program. Through various ordinances between
1978 and 1985, he instituted the Islamization of Pakistan’s legal and economic
systems and social order. In 1979 a federal Sharia (Islamic law) court was
established to exercise Islamic judicial review. Other ordinances established
interest-free banking and provided maximum penalties for adultery, defamation,
theft, and consumption of alcohol.
On March 24, 1981, Zia issued a
Provisional Constitutional Order that served as a substitute for the suspended
1973 constitution. The order provided for the formation of a Federal Advisory
Council (Majlis-e-Shoora) to take the place of the National Assembly. In early
1982 Zia appointed the 228 members of the new council. This effectively
restricted the political parties, which already had been constrained by the
banning of political activity, from organizing resistance to the Zia regime
through the election process.
The Soviet intervention in Afghanistan
in December 1979 heightened Pakistan’s insecurity and changed the fortunes of
General Zia’s military regime. Afghan refugees began to pour into Pakistan.
After about a year, the United States responded to the crisis. In September 1981
Zia accepted a six-year economic and military aid package worth $3.2 billion
from the United States. (The United States approved a second aid package worth
$4.0 billion in 1986 but then suspended its disbursement in 1989 due to
Pakistan’s nuclear-weapons program.) After a referendum in December 1984
endorsed Zia’s Islamization policies and the extension of his presidency until
1990, Zia permitted elections for parliament in February 1985. A civilian
cabinet took office in April, and martial law ended in December. Zia was
dissatisfied, however, and in May 1988 he dissolved the government and ordered
new elections. Three months later he was killed in an airplane crash possibly
caused by sabotage, and a caretaker regime took power until elections could be
held.
| J | Shifting Civilian Governments |
Benazir Bhutto became prime minister
after her PPP won the general elections in November 1988. She was the first
woman to head a modern Islamic state. A civil servant, Ghulam Ishaq Khan, was
appointed president. In August 1990 he dismissed Bhutto’s government, charging
misconduct, and declared a state of emergency. Bhutto and the PPP lost the
October elections after she was arrested for corruption and abuse of power.
The new prime minister, Nawaz Sharif,
head of the Islamic Democratic Alliance (a coalition of Islamic parties
including the Pakistan Muslim League), introduced a program of privatizing state
enterprises and encouraging foreign investment. Fulfilling Sharif’s election
promise to make Sharia (Islamic law) the supreme law of Pakistan, the national
legislature passed an amended Shariat Bill in 1991. Sharif also promised to ease
continuing tensions with India over Kashmīr. The charges against Bhutto were
resolved, and she returned to lead the opposition. In early 1993 Sharif was
appointed the leader of the Pakistan Muslim League.
In April 1993 Ishaq Khan once again used
his presidential power, this time to dismiss Sharif and to dissolve parliament.
However, Sharif appealed to the Supreme Court of Pakistan, and in May the court
stated that Khan’s actions were unconstitutional, and the court reinstated
Sharif as prime minister. Sharif and Khan subsequently became embroiled in a
power struggle that paralyzed the Pakistani government. In an agreement designed
to end the stalemate, Sharif and Khan resigned together in July 1993, and
elections were held in October of that year. Bhutto’s PPP won a plurality in the
parliamentary elections, and Bhutto was again named prime minister.
In 1996 Bhutto’s government was
dismissed by President Farooq Leghari amid allegations of corruption. New
elections in February 1997 brought Nawaz Sharif back to power in a clear victory
for the Pakistan Muslim League. One of Sharif’s first actions as prime minister
was to lead the National Assembly in passing a constitutional amendment
stripping the president of the authority to dismiss parliament. The action
triggered a power struggle between Sharif, Leghari, and Supreme Court Chief
Justice Sajjad Ali Shah. When the military threw its support behind Sharif,
Leghari resigned and Shah was removed. Sharif’s nominee, Rafiq Tarar, was then
elected president.
Pakistan was beset by domestic unrest
beginning in the mid-1990s. Violence between rival political, religious, and
ethnic groups erupted frequently in Sind Province, particularly in Karāchi.
Federal rule was imposed on the province in late 1998 due to increasing
violence.
| K | Relations with India |
Relations between India and Pakistan
became more tense beginning in the early 1990s. Diplomatic talks between the two
countries broke down in January 1994 over the disputed Kashmīr region. In
February Bhutto organized a nationwide strike to show support for the militant
Muslim rebels in Indian Kashmīr involved in sporadic fighting against the Indian
army. She also announced that Pakistan would continue with its nuclear weapons
development program, raising concerns that a nuclear arms race could start
between Pakistan and India, which has had nuclear weapons since the 1970s. In
January 1996, despite some controversy, the United States lifted economic and
some military sanctions imposed against Pakistan since 1990. The sanctions,
imposed to protest Pakistan’s nuclear weapons program, were lifted to allow U.S.
companies to fulfill contracts with Pakistan and to help foster diplomatic
relations between the two countries.
In early 1997 Sharif resumed talks with
India over the Kashmīr region; however, negotiations quickly broke down when
armed hostilities erupted again. Tensions escalated further in 1998, when India
conducted several nuclear tests. Pakistan responded with its own tests,
detonating nuclear weapons for the first time in its history. The Pakistani
government then declared a state of emergency, invoking constitutional
provisions that operate when Pakistan’s security comes under “threat of external
aggression.” Many foreign countries, including the United States, imposed
economic sanctions against both India and Pakistan for exploding nuclear
devices. In the months following the explosions, the leaders of Pakistan and
India placed a moratorium on further nuclear testing, and the United States
initiated negotiations between the two countries aimed at reducing tensions and
circumventing an arms race in the region.
In early 1999 Sharif and Indian prime
minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee signed the Lahore Declaration, which articulated a
commitment to work toward improved relations. However, in April fears of a
nuclear arms race revived when both countries tested medium-range missiles
capable of carrying nuclear warheads. Furthermore, in May 1999 Kashmīri
separatists, widely believed to be backed by Pakistan, seized Indian-controlled
territory near Kargil in the disputed Kashmīr region. Fighting between Indian
forces and the separatists raged until July, when Sharif agreed to secure the
withdrawal of the separatists and India suspended its military campaign.
The Pakistani military accused Sharif of
giving in too easily to pressure from India and for pinning the blame for the
Kargil attack on army chief Pervez Musharraf. In October 1999 Sharif tried to
dismiss General Musharraf from his position. He attempted to prevent Musharraf’s
return to Pakistan from abroad by refusing to let his airplane land. The
commercial airplane was forced to circle the Karāchi airport until army forces
loyal to Musharraf took over the airport. Army forces also seized control of the
government in a bloodless coup that lasted less than three hours.
| L | Pakistan Under Musharraf |
Musharraf declared himself the chief
executive of Pakistan, suspended the constitution, and dissolved the
legislature. He appointed an eight-member National Security Council to function
as the country’s supreme governing body. Many Pakistanis, already chafing under
Sharif’s increasingly autocratic rule and suffering from a sagging Pakistani
economy after ten years of government excesses and corruption, welcomed the
coup. Sharif was arrested, and in April 2000 he was convicted of abuse of power
and other charges and sentenced to life imprisonment; his sentence was
subsequently commuted and he was allowed to live in exile in Saudi Arabia.
Meanwhile, the Supreme Court of Pakistan set a deadline of October 2002 for
holding national elections to restore civilian rule. The Commonwealth of
Nations, however, formally suspended Pakistan’s membership because the coup
ousted a civilian government.
After assuming power, Musharraf’s
military government adopted a reformist posture. It identified economic reform
as the most urgent measure needed to restore the confidence of foreign and local
investors. As part of this strategy, Musharraf initiated an ambitious program
based on accountability, improved governance, and widening of the tax net.
However, in the wake of the coup new international sanctions were imposed to
oppose the military regime. Donor agencies such as the International Monetary
Fund (IMF) were unwilling to provide new loans or reschedule Pakistan’s foreign
debt.
| L1 | Pakistan Allies with United States |
In 2001 Pakistan established itself as
a vital U.S. ally and key regional player after the September 11 terrorist
attacks in the United States. Pakistan became a frontline state of high
strategic importance as the U.S.-led war on terrorism unfolded in neighboring
Afghanistan. Pakistan had been an ally of the Taliban, which had established a
fundamentalist Islamic regime in Afghanistan in 1996. The Taliban was accused of
harboring the suspected mastermind of the terrorist attacks, Osama bin Laden.
The Taliban and bin Laden’s international terrorist network, al-Qaeda, became
the target of U.S.-led air strikes in Afghanistan that began on October 7. The
Musharraf government agreed to provide logistical support and use of Pakistan’s
airspace for the offensive, and to share military intelligence to fight global
terrorism. Formally breaking with the Taliban, Pakistan withdrew all of its
diplomats from Afghanistan and officially closed its shared border. On September
22, meanwhile, the United States lifted most of the economic sanctions it had
imposed after Pakistan exploded nuclear devices in 1998, brightening prospects
for Pakistan’s economy.
Musharraf’s cooperation with the
United States evoked hostility from hardline Islamic fundamentalist groups
within Pakistan. In December 2003 the Pakistani president survived two
assassination attempts. Suspicions centered on militant Islamic groups within
Pakistan, on al-Qaeda, or a joint conspiracy between the two groups. The attacks
appeared to encourage Musharraf to crack down on the militant fundamentalists
and to bolster Pakistan’s cooperation with the United States in pursuing
al-Qaeda and Taliban forces along the Pakistani border with Afghanistan.
| L2 | Constitutional Amendments and Elections |
Musharraf pledged to hold provincial
and parliamentary elections in October 2002. In a bid to secure his position as
president, a title he had adopted in 2001, Musharraf called a referendum in
April 2002 on extending his presidency for five years. The referendum returned a
majority of votes in favor of the proposal, although low voter turnout, loose
voting rules, and the absence of poll monitors tainted the results. In addition,
political parties denounced the referendum because under the constitution, the
president is to be selected by members of the national and provincial
legislatures. In August 2002 Musharraf granted himself sweeping new powers,
unilaterally enacting the Legal Framework Order that introduced 29 amendments to
Pakistan’s constitution. Among other powers, the amendments allowed him to
dissolve the parliament, force the resignation of the prime minister, and
appoint Supreme Court justices.
In the October 2002 elections no
single party or coalition of parties won a majority of seats in the National
Assembly (lower house). The largest number of seats went to the Pakistan Muslim
League (Quaid-e-Azam), or PML-Q, a new PML faction formed as a pro-Musharraf
party. Pro-democracy parties, which had formed the Alliance for the Restoration
of Democracy, also made a strong showing, as did hardline Islamic parties.
Afterward, Britain announced that in restoring an elected civilian government,
Pakistan qualified for readmission to the Commonwealth of Nations.
In December 2003 the parliament passed
a constitutional-amendment bill that legitimized Musharraf’s rule and approved
most of the special powers that he had awarded himself in 2002. It also
specified that Musharraf would have to relinquish his post as chief of army
staff by the end of 2004. Before the deadline approached, however, both houses
of parliament voted to allow Musharraf to remain in the dual role of president
and army chief until 2007. Opposition leaders vehemently opposed the vote, which
passed by a simple majority. Musharraf continued to insist that a formal role
for the military in governing the country was necessary to ensure stability.
| L3 | Regional Diplomacy |
Tensions escalated between Pakistan
and India following violent attacks on Indian targets by Kashmīri separatists in
late 2001 and early 2002. By mid-2002 the two countries had amassed an estimated
1 million troops along their shared border, with most of the military buildup in
the disputed Jammu and Kashmīr region. The threat of armed conflict between the
two nuclear powers prompted intense international diplomacy, which ultimately
helped defuse the crisis.
In May 2003 India and Pakistan agreed
to restore diplomatic ties. High-level contacts followed. In late November
Indian prime minister Atal Behari Vajpayee accepted Musharraf’s offer of a
cease-fire in Jammu and Kashmīr. For the first time in 14 years, artillery fire
ceased along the 1,100-km (700-mi) border. The two leaders also made moves
toward restoring and improving trade and transportation ties between their
countries. In January 2004 India and Pakistan agreed to resume talks on a range
of issues, including the status of Kashmīr.
| L4 | Pakistan’s Nuclear Weapons Program |
In February 2004 the founder of
Pakistan’s nuclear weapons program, Abdul Qadeer Khan, admitted that he had
shared nuclear weapons technology with other nations. Through these deals Khan
became enormously wealthy. In a nationally televised address Khan apologized for
his actions. The next day Musharraf pardoned Khan, who is regarded as a national
hero within Pakistan. Khan’s ties with Pakistan’s main nuclear weapons
laboratory had previously been severed in 2001 due to financial irregularities.
He was placed under house arrest in early 2004 after the International Atomic
Energy Agency (IAEA) and several Western intelligence agencies confronted
Musharraf with overwhelming evidence that Khan had passed nuclear weapons
secrets to Iran, Libya, and North Korea.
| L5 | Deadly Earthquake |
In October 2005 a 7.6-magnitude
earthquake struck Pakistan’s mountainous northern regions. Near the epicenter,
located about 105 km (65 mi) northeast of Islāmābād, entire villages were
reduced to rubble. The quake killed at least 73,000 people and left about 3
million homeless in Pakistan. International donors pledged more than $5 billion
for reconstruction, and aid agencies quickly moved in to provide humanitarian
relief. However, the remoteness of many communities impeded aid efforts. As
heavy winter snows set in, many survivors were forced to live in tents and other
inadequate shelters. A year later about 30,000 people faced another brutally
cold winter without adequate shelter, due to the slow pace of rebuilding. The
Pakistani government estimated that reconstruction would take several years to
complete.
| L6 | Opposition to Musharraf |
In March 2007 Musharraf formally
suspended the chief justice of the Supreme Court, Iftikhar Chaudhry, and
replaced him with an acting chief justice of his own choosing. The dismissal of
Chaudhry sparked daily street protests by lawyers and opposition politicians,
who accused Musharraf of undermining the independence of the judiciary in the
run-up to the presidential elections due in October. The Supreme Court
reinstated Chaudhry in July, ruling that Musharraf had acted illegally and
exceeded his constitutional authority. The opposition against Musharraf gained
new impetus from the ruling.
The following month, the Supreme Court
ruled that former prime minister Nawaz Sharif, whom Musharraf had deposed in
1999, had an “inalienable right” to return to Pakistan from exile in Saudi
Arabia. Sharif, who had maintained his leadership of the PML faction loyal to
him (the PML-N), announced his intention to return and contest upcoming
elections. Upon his arrival in September 2007, Sharif was promptly arrested by
government forces and sent back to Saudi Arabia. However, in November he was
allowed to return to Pakistan.
In early October, Musharraf easily won
reelection as president. Most opposition parties boycotted the election, which
was held by an electoral college comprising members of the national and
provincial assemblies. Although the Supreme Court had allowed the election to go
ahead as scheduled, it decided to hear challenges to Musharraf’s right to
reelection, thus postponing his inauguration. At issue was his eligibility to
run for president while retaining his role as army chief. Musharraf indicated he
would give up his military title once his reelection as president was secured.
Meanwhile, Musharraf engaged in
negotiations with former prime minister Benazir Bhutto, the widely popular PPP
leader who had remained in self-imposed exile since 1999. Bhutto sought to gain
amnesty from the longstanding corruption charges against her, as well as the
right to serve a third term as prime minister (disallowed under the amended
constitution). In return Bhutto reportedly agreed to accept Musharraf as
president, providing he resigned as army chief. In October 2007 Musharraf
granted Bhutto amnesty, and she promptly returned to Pakistan.
Bhutto’s arrival procession in Karāchi
drew throngs of supporters, but the homecoming celebration turned into a tragedy
as suicide-bomb attacks killed at least 136 people and injured hundreds more.
Afterward, the government instituted restrictions on public political
gatherings. Suicide-bomb attacks, attributed to Islamic militants, had been on
the rise in Pakistan for several months.
Musharraf declared a state of
emergency in November 2007, claiming that the country was “on the verge of
destabilization” due to increasing activity by pro-Taliban militants. Musharraf
suspended the constitution and dissolved the Supreme Court but stopped short of
shutting down the parliament. Only the state-run television station was allowed
to broadcast, and telephone lines were disabled. Chief Justice Chaudhry refused
to endorse the emergency order and was promptly dismissed and put under house
arrest. Chaudhry’s supporters and others who staged protests against the
imposition of emergency rule were met with baton-wielding police and tear gas.
Musharraf resigned his military post
in late November and was subsequently inaugurated as president, this time as a
civilian. He lifted the state of emergency in mid-December. Later that month
Bhutto was assassinated while campaigning in Rāwalpindi. Parliamentary
elections, originally scheduled for January 2008, were postponed until February.
The PPP emerged as the largest party in the National Assembly, followed by
Sharif’s PML-N. The pro-Musharraf PML-Q and its allies suffered a crushing
defeat, losing their majority. The PPP and PML-N formed a coalition government
in opposition to Musharraf. Yusuf Raza Gillani of the PPP was named prime
minister.
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